| SUPERVIRSORY TIPS FOR PROFESSIONAL | | | | (Darling-Hammond& Harmmerness, 2005). |
| DEVELOPMENT OF TEACHERS IN THE 21ST | | | | Supervisory Strategies in successful |
| CENTURY . | | | | Professional Development programs |
| Professional Development as a Concept | | | | While the cost of |
| Professional development | | | | professional development is on the rise, the gains are |
| in education has many facets as evidenced by | | | | minimally realized as most of such programs lack |
| numerous terms used to refer to the process. Some | | | | focus, intensity, follow-up, evaluation and continuity |
| call it professional growth, in-service education, on the | | | | (Kauchak, D. & Eggen, P., 2008). For maximum |
| job training, continuing education, recurrent education, | | | | gains, Glickman et al (2004) have noted the following |
| staff improvement or renewal. In this paper the term is | | | | tips from a synthesis of 97 research studies carried |
| used to refer to the process through which teachers | | | | out by Lawrence in 1994. Involvement of administrators |
| attain higher professional competence and expand | | | | and supervisors in planning and delivering the program, |
| their understanding of self, role, context and career. It is | | | | differential training experiences for different teachers ( |
| any experience that teachers engage in to widen their | | | | matching professional development to teacher |
| knowledge, appreciation, skills, and understanding of | | | | characteristics), placement of the teacher in an active |
| their work inline with goals, values of the schools and | | | | roles, putting emphasis on demonstrations, supervised |
| the interests and needs of teachers (Duke& | | | | trials, feedback, teacher sharing and mutual assistance, |
| Stiggins, 1990; Beerens, D.R., 2000; Norton, M. S., 2008). | | | | linking of activities to the general professional |
| This definition is premised on the fact that | | | | development program, allowing for teacher choice of |
| organizations will progress to the extent that people | | | | goals and activities and having teachers to initiate and |
| grow and develop. It submits to the idea that teacher | | | | direct training activities. |
| development must be linked with the schools strategic | | | | From the foregoing list it |
| plan together with the short and long range work force | | | | can be argued that mutual adaptation is a fundamental |
| assets. | | | | factor in the success of professional development |
| Justification for Professional Development of Teachers | | | | programs for teachers, this includes Involvement and |
| In the 21st century | | | | inclusion of all the parties. Mutual trust, commitment and |
| education is becoming a competitive human enterprise. | | | | consistent leadership proceeding from a non- |
| Like all other investments, people spend money, effort | | | | threatening and incremental pace of development are |
| and time in education and expect good returns. This | | | | necessary. Factors that foster mutual adaptation are |
| makes education to be rated on the basis of its cost | | | | concrete, teacher-specific and extended training, |
| effectiveness. The outcome calculated in terms of | | | | classroom assistance as a way of follow up, teacher |
| economic, social and at times political gains is what | | | | observation of similar projects in other classrooms, |
| motivates people to invest heavily in education. | | | | schools, or districts; regular classroom project meetings |
| According to Darling-Hamond (1998) each dollar spent | | | | that focus on practical programs, participation in |
| on improving teacher’s qualification nets greater | | | | project decisions, use of local materials and |
| gains in student learning than any other use of an | | | | supervisor’s participation in the training (Glickman, |
| educational dollar. However, these gains are dependant | | | | C.D. Gordon, S.P., Ross-Gordon, & J.M., |
| on the quality of the teachers and yet it takes time for | | | | 2004). |
| one to become an effective teacher. At whatever | | | | Further research indicates that, skill development |
| cost, it is notable that good instruction accrues from | | | | programs that use presentation, demonstrations, |
| the professional development of teachers (Glickman, | | | | practice, monitoring and mentoring are more effective |
| C.D., et al 2004; O’Donnell, Reeve& Smith., | | | | than those without such coaching and feed back. |
| 2009). | | | | These findings suggest that teachers acquire and use |
| Unfortunately, there is little | | | | new skills only if there is engagement and subsequent |
| knowledge and understanding about the kinds of the | | | | follow up into their own classrooms Joyce, B. R., & |
| programs which work best, their optimal organization , | | | | Beverly, S. 1983; Guskey, T.R., 1986; Landry, H.S. et al |
| content and what needs to be done in specific | | | | 2009). |
| circumstances. Developers do not usually | | | | For this reason, and as suggested by Glickman et al |
| conceptualize the methodological underpinnings of | | | | (2004), professional development should progress from |
| professional program development or its paradigm. | | | | orientation, integration to refinements levels taking into |
| Even though administrators, teachers and supervisors | | | | consideration teachers characteristics and personal |
| usually go through staff development period with a | | | | needs . |
| mere endurance of attitude not hoping to gain much | | | | For skill |
| from it, a number of teachers are beginning to report | | | | development, small- group driven workshops appear to |
| potential gains from the programs . Management | | | | be more successful than those with larger groups |
| consultants have also indicated that the largest single | | | | (Stallings, 1980). Mohlman- Sparks (1986) compared |
| factor to job satisfaction is the opportunity for growth | | | | three models of such groups. The first model had |
| and career development (English, F.W., 2004; Bathurst, | | | | presentation, demonstration, and practice and feed |
| P.2007; Preez, du P & Roux, C. 2008). | | | | back. The second contained presentation, |
| Teachers also indicate that | | | | demonstration, practice and feedback followed by |
| they need continuous up grading in all the activities they | | | | peer observation. The Third one had presentation, |
| engage in their services as teachers (Allan, P., 1983). | | | | demonstration, practice, feed back and trainer coach. |
| Since they play a major role in curriculum development | | | | Interestingly, the results showed there were higher |
| process, their competence needs appraisal to match | | | | gains in classroom skills with the second model that |
| with a wide array of curriculum demands. With influx of | | | | used peer observation followed by the third one which |
| knowledge, education has become an ever growing | | | | included trainer coach. There were no meaningful gains |
| field that calls for retraining of teachers if they are to | | | | with the first model. These findings make a strong |
| cope with the latest professional practice, and avoid | | | | argument for peer and supervisory involvement, and |
| getting into “shock Professionalism”. (Lundgren, | | | | additional component of orientation, integration and |
| U.P., & Forsberg, E., 2004). | | | | refinement of learnt skills – in procedures such as |
| The individual teachers | | | | application, experimentation and reflection. A properly |
| should be provided with common skills, and assisted to | | | | conceptualized staff development philosophy, policies |
| become adaptive to the changes as they participate in | | | | and procedures should be in place to guide the |
| planning at instructional level, otherwise a new curricula | | | | context, content and process of the development as |
| would have little worthwhile impact until teachers have | | | | suggested by Dejarnette, C.S. (1989) & Samuel, M. |
| time to understand and assimilate it. Experience of | | | | & Wyk, M.V., (2008). |
| managing change activities indicates clearly that the | | | | It is not only |
| form and timing of staff development is what counts. | | | | important to align the programs with the school wide |
| The need for clarity on the purpose, nature and | | | | goals, both of individuals and groups within the school, |
| benefits of the innovation, can not be underrated | | | | but also to base the program on research findings |
| (Ornstein, A.C., & Hunkins, P.F 1998; Kelly, M.P | | | | from action research on the best practices on school |
| & John, R. S., 2005; O’Donnell, A.M., Reeve, J.K., | | | | and instructional improvement. In doing this |
| 2009). | | | | administrative support should be solicited for funds, |
| Glickman, C.D. et al (2004) | | | | planning and implementation. There is also need for |
| narrate an analogy of “the Car “as given by one | | | | long range planning that incorporates assessments and |
| of the presenters at a Michigan school board to | | | | feed back; so that professional development becomes |
| illustrate the importance of professional development | | | | part of the school culture. Operational procedure for |
| of teachers. In the analogy it is argued that when a | | | | staff development should go through the following five |
| customer buys a new car costing about of $ 30,000 | | | | steps (1) adopting a guiding policy (2) developing |
| or more, for preventive maintenance and fine tuning he | | | | statement of program goals and objectives (3) |
| needs to continue to put ting additional money into the | | | | planning program activities (4) implementing the |
| car to prolong its life and performance. Similarly when | | | | activities and (5) evaluating the outcomes (Briggs, A. R. |
| a school board higher s a professional teacher and | | | | J., & Coleman, M. 2007). |
| pays an initial amount of investment, it needs to invest | | | | Major Themes of Professional development of |
| further resources for fine tuning and reinvigorating the | | | | Teachers in the 21st Century |
| teacher otherwise it runs him into the ground. | | | | Following the current |
| Another justification can | | | | reforms in the educational system, there are new |
| be captured from a research study in which Torff | | | | themes for professional development of teachers that |
| (2003) compared three groups of teachers - the | | | | the 21st century supervisor needs to be conversant |
| novices, experienced and expert teachers; he | | | | with. Teachers should be trained in self regulatory skills, |
| discovered that while each category of teachers had | | | | use of technology such as computer, cell phones as |
| unique needs, in some areas they had common needs. | | | | metaphors of teaching , Subject matter, methodology, |
| He therefore recommended that all teachers at | | | | classroom management and meeting needs of special |
| whatever level will need continuous upgrading not only | | | | students. There is also need for developmental |
| in areas of skill, knowledge and abilities, but through | | | | programs that will strengthen teachers’ philosophy |
| various forms of experiences and reflection on | | | | inline with his conduct as a professional (Brand, G.A. |
| personal experience. According to Fullan, M (2001) | | | | 1997; Humphrey, B. & Stokes, J. 2000; Irujo, S. |
| “Teachers of today and tomorrow need to do | | | | 2005; O’Donnell, A.M et al., 2009; Kramarski, B. |
| much more learning on the job, or parallel with it- | | | | & Michalsky, T. 2009). |
| where they can constantly test out, refine, and get | | | | Conclusion |
| feedback on the improvements they make” p 266. | | | | The ultimate task of the 21st |
| This assertion puts an urgent call for supervisors to | | | | century supervisor is to help teachers to cope with |
| develop a proactive rather than a reactive approach | | | | global educational changes through professional |
| to professional development of teachers. Proactive | | | | development. In this task the supervisor needs to be |
| approach is ideal in the sense that it goes beyond | | | | knowledgeable about the essence, justification and the |
| reactive assumptions of the “missing education” | | | | nature of the development intended. In order to |
| and focuses on the needed skills to meet as well as | | | | improve the productivity of the process, the supervisor |
| building essential human resources to invigorate the | | | | needs to be conversant with the core problems of |
| school system for immediate and future needs. | | | | teaching and learning in order to seek for their solutions. |
| Programs for Professional Development of Teachers. | | | | The understanding of teacher’s stages of |
| There are different ways | | | | development and developmental needs are essential in |
| of enhancing professional growth of teachers ranging | | | | planning training programs. For maximum gains the |
| from professional practicum, in-service, workshops, | | | | programs should be incremental, varied, fulfilling and |
| faculty conventions, teacher centers, and visitation to | | | | mutually adaptive to individual, school and district goals. |
| other schools, teacher conferences, travel/cultural | | | | Teachers should be involved in the initial plans, process |
| tours, readings, video and audio cassettes and | | | | and follow ups as this contribute to relevance and |
| attendance at professional development schools and | | | | effectiveness of the programs. |
| membership in professional organizations to mention a | | | | REFERENCES |
| few. Arguably these categories can further be divided | | | | Allan, P. (1983). The effective teacher: In primary and |
| into two broad categories as in-service and advanced | | | | secondary school. London, John Wright and sons |
| preparation. In-service serves the purpose of improving | | | | Ltd. |
| skills and knowledge while advanced preparation is | | | | Beerens, D.R., (2000). Evaluating teachers for |
| done with anticipation of future needs of the school | | | | professional growth: Creating a culture of |
| (Norton, M.S., 2008; Samuel, M. & Wyk, M. V., 2008; | | | | motivation and learning. Thousand |
| Kauchack, D., Eggen, P., 2009). | | | | Oaks, CA, Corwin press, Inc. |
| For the purpose of this | | | | Brand, G. A. (1997). What Research says: Training |
| paper professional development programs will be | | | | teachers for using technology. |
| discussed under four headings that correspond to | | | | Journal of Staff development, |
| teacher’s needs, these include; induction, | | | | (19)1, 112-114. |
| refreshment, extension, and conversion. The | | | | Briggs, A. R. J., & Coleman, M. (2007). Research |
| differentiation coincides with teachers’ career | | | | methods in educational leadership and management. |
| stages and developmental needs. For instance, while | | | | London, Sage Publications Ltd. |
| those in initial training require pre-service, the novice has | | | | Darling-Hammond, L., & Harmeness, K. (2005). The |
| needs to understand the operations and complexity of | | | | design of teacher induction programs, In Darling |
| the school system- however, both require directive | | | | –Hammond and Bransford, J. (Eds) Preparing |
| informational supervision. On the contrary, the | | | | teachers for a changing world: What |
| experienced teachers seek for further competence to | | | | teachers should Learn and be able to |
| handle their multifaceted roles, and require more of | | | | do pp. 390-441. San Francisco: Jossey Bass. |
| collaborative and nondirective supervision (Glickman, | | | | Dejarnette, C.S. (1989). Staff development: A handbook |
| C.D., et al 2004). Each category of teachers fit in one | | | | of effective practices. |
| of the following programs. | | | | Journal of Effective Schools, |
| Induction | | | | (6)4, 556. |
| Induction is a systematic | | | | Duke, C., & Stiggins, R. (1990). Beyond minimum |
| program of professional initiation, guided experience | | | | Competence: Evaluation for professional |
| and further study for beginning teachers. It provides the | | | | development. In Danielson, C. & |
| novice with systematic and sustained assistance to | | | | McGreal, T.L (2000).Teacher evaluation: To enhance |
| ease the transition into teaching. Thus, the notion of | | | | professional practice. Alexandria, Virginia. |
| introduction is used to describe any form of in-service | | | | Association for supervision and curriculum |
| guidance, and assistance offered to acclimatize the | | | | development. |
| new teacher into his new responsibilities. This is can | | | | English, W.F. (2004). The sage handbook of educational |
| also be referred to as beginning teacher programs. It | | | | leadership; Advances in theory, research |
| includes orientation to the school and community and | | | | and practice. London Sage Publications |
| intensive assistance in classroom management and | | | | Inc. |
| effective teaching. Characteristically, the induction | | | | Fullan, M. (2001). The new meaning of educational |
| process tends to place less reliance on a need for | | | | change. Amsterdam, NY: teachers college |
| attendance at formally organized in-service courses. | | | | press. |
| The novice teacher is often mentored through | | | | Gilbert, L. (2005). What helps beginning teachers? |
| individual discussions and observations by immediate | | | | Journal of Educational Leadership, |
| supervisors or mentors so that he develops teaching | | | | 62(8) 36-39. |
| efficacy. Research has revealed that a novice | | | | Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S. P., & Ross-Gordon, J. |
| teacher’s self efficacy flourishes if there in a | | | | M. (2004). Supervision and Instructional |
| positive school climate, encouragement, support during | | | | leadership: A developmental |
| difficulties and strong mentoring by an experienced | | | | approach. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. |
| teacher (Woolfolk Hoy, 2000; Yost, 2002; Kauchak, D., | | | | Guskey, T. R. (1986). Staff development and the |
| Eggen, P., 2009) | | | | process of teacher change. Educational Researcher, |
| Supervisors need to ensure the following factors if | | | | (15)5, 5-12. |
| they want to carry out successful induction programs; | | | | Humphrey, B., & Stokes, J. (2000). The 21st |
| make a systematic attempt to help beginning teachers | | | | century supervision: Nine essential skills for frontline |
| with both classes and opportunities to observe and | | | | leaders. San Francisco, Josey - |
| dialogue with experienced teachers, offer special help | | | | Bass Pfeiffer. |
| in the beginning years of the teacher’s career to | | | | Irujo, S. (2005). Professional Development for teachers |
| help them link their instruction to district and national | | | | of ELLS; A do-it yourself approach: In the |
| standards, design professional development activities | | | | ELL out -look, news, research and |
| to increase mentor’s effectiveness and | | | | discussions on the education of English language, |
| compensation for mentors, develop a mentoring | | | | Course Crafters, Inc. |
| support with everyday problems and encouragement | | | | Joyce, B., & Beverly, S. (1983). Power in staff |
| so that the neophyte develops a reflective | | | | development through research on training: In |
| professional attitude . (Fullan,M (2001);Gilbert, 2005; | | | | Glickman, C. D., Gordon, S. P., & |
| Wayne, Y. & Fleischman, 2005; Wong, B., & | | | | Ross-Gordon, J. M. (2004). Supervision and Instructional |
| Ganser, 2005; O’Donnell, Reeve & Smith., | | | | leadership: A developmental approach. Boston, MA: |
| 2009). | | | | Allyn & Bacon. |
| Refreshment | | | | Kauchak, D., & Eggen, P. (2009). Teaching |
| This is a kind of personal | | | | profession: Becoming a professional. Upper Saddle |
| intellectual stimulation. It refers to the in-service | | | | River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. |
| program that is intended to provide professional and | | | | Kelly, M. P., & John, R. S. (2005). “A case study |
| academic substance to teachers who have been | | | | of one school systems adoption and |
| performing the same type of tasks for a long time, | | | | implementation of an elementary science program.” |
| perhaps many years (Paisy, A., 1983). The refresher | | | | Journal of Research in Science Teaching, |
| course puts stress on refurbishing method skills and | | | | (42)1, 25- 52. |
| techniques, especially in subject areas with a practical | | | | Kramaski, B., & Michalsky, T. (2009). Investigating |
| lesson bias, for example Mathematics, physical | | | | pre-service teachers’ professional growth in self |
| education, home economics and science. Refreshment | | | | regulated environments retrieved June 16, |
| activities may take place any time after induction while | | | | 2009, from for-profesjonsstudier-SPS/Litteraturtips |
| a teacher continues to perform a particular function or | | | | Landry, S.H., Anthony, J.L., Swank, P.R., & |
| skill. For teachers who wish to develop their | | | | Monseque-Bailey, P. (2009). Effectiveness of |
| professionalism, the refresher course must continue to | | | | comprehensive professional development for teachers |
| rank as an important form of study experience that | | | | at-risk preschoolers. |
| may take the form of several workshops, which | | | | Lawrence. (1974). Patterns for effective in-service: |
| eventually contributes to career advancement. | | | | State of the art summary of research on |
| Extension | | | | materials and procedures for changing teacher |
| According to Kauchak, D. | | | | behaviors in in-service education: |
| & Eggen, P. (2008) in the context of in-service | | | | Tallahassee, FL: Florida State Department of |
| education, extension studies take two dimensions. It | | | | Education. |
| may involve work, which extends the normal range of | | | | Lundreg , U.P. & Forsberg, E. (2004). A Welfare |
| a subject or allows for the pursuit of related interests | | | | State in Transition, In Rotberg, C.I |
| or extension studies which include interdisciplinary work | | | | Balancing change and transition in global education |
| designed to develop teacher’s personal maturity | | | | reform. US: Rowman & Little Field education. |
| and skills through medium of their personal interest. | | | | Norton, M. S., (2008). Human resource administration for |
| Usually, the acquisition of unfamiliar skills and techniques | | | | educational leaders.Thousand Oaks, CA, |
| and the absorption of new knowledge call for | | | | Sage publications Ltd. |
| processes in which learning is brought by factors such | | | | Moore, D., & Hyde, A. (1981). Making sense of staff |
| as regular practice, continuous reinforcement and | | | | development: An analysis of staff development |
| concentrated memorization. Consequently extension | | | | programs and their costs in three urban districts. |
| studies, unlike refresher work tend to take a long | | | | Chicago, IL; Designs for change. |
| duration, occupying periods that may span a term | | | | Mohlman-Sparks, G. (1986). The effectiveness of |
| more than one year. For this reason, extension | | | | alternative training activities in |
| courses often tare as advanced and lead to higher- | | | | changing teaching practices. American Educational |
| bearing qualifications such as postgraduate diploma | | | | Research Journal,(23)2, 217- 225. |
| and masters degrees | | | | O’Donnell, A. M., Reeve, J., & Smith, J. K. (2009). |
| Conversion | | | | Educational psychology: reflection |
| This refers to a response | | | | for action 2ndedition. Danvers, MA: John Wiley |
| to a teacher’s professional needs arising from | | | | & sons Inc. |
| taking on, or wishing to take on a new and unfamiliar | | | | Ornstein, A.C., & Hunskins (1998). Curriculum |
| jobs or tasks in the education service. A conversion | | | | foundations, principles and issues. |
| course can help to prepare a teacher to move up | | | | Allyn and Bacon. |
| (promotion), sideways (lateral relocation) or out of | | | | Preez, P. (2008). Participative intervention research: |
| profession (redundancy). Teachers who are decided | | | | The development of professional programs for |
| on their career, strategy and timetable can benefit | | | | in-service teachers. Education as Change, (12)77-90. |
| from vertical conversion courses or programs that | | | | Stallings, J. (1980) Allocated Learning time revisited or |
| would suit their professional needs. Lateral conversion | | | | Beyond Time on Task. Journal of Educational |
| includes in-service programs designed to train teachers | | | | Researcher, (9)11, 11-16. |
| for dealing with a new age- range of unfamiliar subject | | | | Torf, B. (2003). Developmental changes in teachers’ |
| area. Their purpose is to assist teachers in attaining | | | | use of higher order thinking and Content Knowledge, |
| lateral mobility, open up a prospect of career | | | | Journal of Educational Psychology, (97)563-569. |
| development that secures a teacher from the problem | | | | Wayne, A., Youngs, P. & Fleischman, S. (2005). |
| of redundancy. The programs run for a long time to | | | | Improving teacher induction. Journal of Educational |
| allow for sufficient time for relating theory into practice | | | | Leadership, (62)8, 76-77. |
| (Glickman, C.D et al 2004). | | | | Woolfolk, H. A. (2000). Changes in teacher efficacy |
| Since the beginning of | | | | during early years of teaching. Paper |
| 1990’s teacher’s roles are rapidly expanding | | | | presented at the annual meeting of |
| beyond the school into district curriculum committees. | | | | American Educational Research Association, New |
| Teachers now participate in making wide policies on | | | | Orleans, LA. |
| issues such as grading, writing grant proposals for | | | | Wong, H., Britton, T., & Ganser, T. (2005). What the |
| student- or teacher development projects, arranging | | | | world can teach us about teacher Induction. Phi |
| school business partnerships, initiating and facilitating | | | | Delta Kappan, (86)5, 379-384. |
| school-to-work activities and conducting action | | | | Wyk, M.V., & Samuel, J., (2008). Narratives of |
| research. The later is emerging as a new program in | | | | professional development: Forces in the field. Education |
| conversion aimed at enhancing teacher autonomy and | | | | as Change, (12)2, 137-153. |
| reflection. Other versions of conversion include | | | | Yost, R. (2000). “I think I can”: Mentoring as a |
| developing teachers as writers through networking, | | | | means of enhancing teacher efficacy. Clearing House, |
| partnerships and experiencing of collegial support at | | | | (75)195- 197. |
| seminars, conferences and at teacher centers | | | | |