| THE SOCIO – POLITICAL MILIEU OF GREAT | | | | failed. The whole adventure of the Government had |
| BRITAIN IN THE POST–WAR ERA | | | | proved nothing except that the days for grand imperial |
| (1945-1970) | | | | gestures were over and that Britain had to accept a |
| The World-War II had crippled England more seriously | | | | back seat in the conduct of the world. When in |
| than the World-War I. It had caused tremendous | | | | Hungary, the people revolted against the Communist |
| damage to England economically, politically and socially. | | | | Government imposed upon the Soviet Union and |
| It took many years and great sacrifices of the British | | | | Russia quelled the rebellion by sending its tanks, Britain |
| citizens to salvage England from the debris of the | | | | kept mum and did nothing. John Russell Taylor wrote: |
| War. In the words of C.D. Hazen: | | | | In Hungary the people rebelled against their Russian- |
| Six lakhs of Great Britain’s were killed or wounded; | | | | imposed Communist Government, and Russia put |
| about forty lakh houses were destroyed; the number | | | | down the revolt in a good-fashioned imperialist way by |
| of its cargo ships came down considerably, and its | | | | sending in tanks, while the rest of the world looked on |
| internal and external debt increased to a very big | | | | and did nothing. |
| proportion. | | | | Meanwhile a protest was organized round the question |
| The War had brought about frustration, fear, cynicism, | | | | of nuclear disarmament because people feared the |
| bitterness, joblessness and absurdism among the | | | | atom bomb more than any thing else. A direct political |
| British youths. What was needed at once was to | | | | action was avoided. Instead individuals thought together |
| create a healthy mood in the nation without which no | | | | in non-party groups to offer passive resistance. |
| rehabitation, reconstruction and the revival of healthy | | | | Marches and siting down programmes in the streets |
| economy was possible. In the words of its famous | | | | were organized against the manufacturing of the atom |
| economist Keynes: | | | | bomb by Britain. The people of all parties marched to |
| In order to achieve the immediate strength Britain | | | | Aldermaston, an air base where nuclear weapons |
| sacrificed all its considerations for its future.2 | | | | were stored. |
| The immediate task which confronted Britain was to | | | | In the foreign affairs, Britain lost its colonies like India, |
| get rid of the War Government and install the Civilian | | | | Palestine, Burma, Malaya. With the loss of these |
| Government to initiate damage control activities with | | | | colonies, the rapid shrinkage of the British empire set in, |
| the active co-operation of the British citizens. The | | | | and the national pride of the British youth was badly |
| peaceful transfer of power to a democratic | | | | hurt. There were causes and issues worth dying for |
| government was a must after the bloody War. There | | | | but nobody did anything to check the national loss. |
| was every possibility of Churchill being a dictator like | | | | Jimmy Porter outlined the anger of the British youths in |
| Stalin in the Soviet Union. Immediately after the War, | | | | the play Look Back in Anger : |
| there were elections to the British Parliament in which | | | | I suppose people of our generation aren’t able to |
| the Labour Party had a stunning victory over the | | | | die for good causes any longer. We had all that done |
| Conservative Party and a Labour Government was | | | | for us, in the thirties and the forties, where we were |
| established in Britain. | | | | still kids. There aren’t any good, brave causes left. |
| In the Post-War elections held in July 1945, Churchill had | | | | In fact, the two major political parties of the Britain |
| a hope of electoral victory through gratitude for the | | | | were equally worse. It disillusioned many who had |
| war time guidance and anchoring successfully the ship | | | | been active in politics and believed that the political |
| of the British nation to the port. But it was a wish | | | | activity held the solution for all the ills of the world. |
| without offering to the electorates any positive | | | | Those who voted one party were unhappy when |
| domestic programme to alleviate the miseries of the | | | | they did not find any noticeable difference. |
| Post-War England. The Conservative Party wanted to | | | | Consequently, the dissatisfaction which many people |
| encash its victory in the war without offering any | | | | felt with life in the early 1950s became aimless. There |
| economic and social balm to the Post-War youths. | | | | were no obvious forces for resentment on the political |
| The Labour Party, on the other hand, smelled the | | | | scene. The intelligent young men and women felt that |
| mood of the nation and came out with definite, radical | | | | their fate would not be different howsoever was in |
| proposals. Sharply reacting against the War time | | | | power and out of power. |
| Government, the British electorates transferred the | | | | In the 1957, the Conservative Party made Harold |
| power to the Labour Party giving almost 400 out of | | | | Macmillan Prime Minister in place of Anthony Eden. The |
| 640 seats in the House of Commons. It was the | | | | economic policies followed by Macmillan improved the |
| clear-cut victory of the Labour Party with a thumping | | | | financial conditions of Britain during 1957 and 1958. |
| majority under the prime ministership of Clement | | | | There was a great increase in British exports. |
| Richard Attlee. | | | | Moreover, the investments from the United States |
| In spite of the electoral landslide of the Labour Party, it | | | | gave a new lease of life to the British economy. It was |
| was not the bed of roses for Clement Richard Attlee | | | | the most fitting time for the Conservatives to give their |
| to settle with the Post-War problems in the domestic | | | | party another victory at the polls. The general elections |
| front and abroad. Though Britain and its allies had won | | | | of October 1959 brought a stunning victory to the |
| the war yet the war had cost Britain one-quarter of its | | | | Conservative Party. In these elections, Hugh Gaitskell |
| national wealth. The public debt of the kingdom had | | | | emerged as the most powerful leader of the Labour |
| tripled from 1939 to 1946. War time property damage | | | | Party. He had dropped the policy of nationalization to |
| was estimated at $5,800,000,000 at 1946 replacement | | | | gain the votes of the middle class that opposed the |
| costs. The total casualties (killed, wounded, imprisoned | | | | socialization of British industries. Macmillan led the |
| and missing) of the armed forces and the civilian | | | | government till 1963. In 1963, the Labour Party lost its |
| population were 9,50,000. | | | | prominent leader Hugh Gaitskell who was succeeded |
| Britain, therefore, faced many domestic problems. The | | | | by Harold Wilson. |
| bomb damage had to be repaired. Foreign trade had | | | | From 1955 to 1963, both the major political parties in |
| to be rebuilt. Large occupation forces had to be | | | | Britain were subjected to severe criticism because |
| maintained in the conquered areas. Momentous | | | | neither of them did any satisfactory work either on the |
| decisions had to be reached and implemented | | | | domestic or foreign front. The leaders of both the |
| regarding India, Egypt and Palestine. Peace treaties had | | | | parties, Macmillan and Hugh Gaitskell were condemned |
| to be made. In 1947, severe weather conditions | | | | by the British youths and intellectuals for sagging the |
| followed by floods also enhanced the miseries of | | | | Socialist Utopia and taking a back seat in the |
| people. | | | | international hegemony. John Osborne was so angry |
| In order to solve the domestic problems, the Labour | | | | with the leaders of both the political parties that he |
| Government had no option but to exercise its | | | | nursed the idea of murder of such leaders. |
| complete direct and indirect control over the British | | | | In late 1963, the British political trend tilted towards the |
| economy. The way lay through socialization, | | | | Labour Party. The Labour Party had already gained |
| nationalization and industrialization to bring about a | | | | control of local civic bodies where the Conservative |
| change in the traditional Britain. I | | | | Party had enjoyed a comfortable majority. The |
| The first task before the new government was to | | | | reasons behind the decline of the popularity of the |
| build and mend houses destroyed and damaged during | | | | Conservative Government were primarily three. First, |
| the war. Another area to which the new government | | | | there was wide-spread unemployment among both |
| had to pay a greater attention was education because | | | | the educated and ill-educated British youths. Secondly, |
| it involved the present and future of 3,00,000 lakhs of | | | | John Profumo who was the War Minister then was |
| British youths faced with hopelessness and | | | | found involved in a moral scandal. This scandal filled |
| unprecedented crisis brought about the war. After April | | | | the headlines of the British newspapers and tobaloids |
| 1947, primary education was made compulsory for | | | | for weeks. Thirdly, the Labourites had been charging |
| children of 15 years of age. Facilities for technical | | | | the Conservative Government with inactivity in public |
| training and vocational education for adults were | | | | health, housing trade and education-all areas in which |
| greatly enlarged.In the field of higher education, the | | | | the Labour Government had done a lot but not up to |
| government was determined to do a lot. Eventually, in | | | | the satisfaction of the British people whenever it was |
| 1963 the government appointed a committee of | | | | posted in power in the past. In addition to it, Wilson and |
| eleven men, which recommended expansion of | | | | his Labourites continued their onslaught on the |
| Britain’s system of higher education to a | | | | Conservatives for the bad economy and formidable |
| considerable degree so that large number of jobless | | | | problems developing into the industry and trade. |
| British youths could enjoy the benefits of university | | | | Consequently, at the polls held in October 1964, the |
| training. | | | | Labour Party came to power defeating the |
| Besides housing and educational programmes of the | | | | Conservative Party with a majority of only four seats. |
| government, another area of immediate interest was | | | | When Wilson was voted to power, the dark economic |
| the provisions of social and economic security to each | | | | clouds were hanging over Britain and the housing |
| individual so that every citizen could enjoy the peace | | | | problem was getting acute as large areas of the cities |
| of mind. As such the government made provisions for | | | | were to be rebuilt. The ship-building industry was |
| insurance payments in case of unemployment, | | | | damaged by Swedish and Japanese competition. The |
| maternity, sickness, and death of a bread-winner and in | | | | Wilson Government took extreme measures and |
| various other circumstances. All these facilities were | | | | imposed restrictions against corporate mergers, |
| offered to the British citizens as the social service of | | | | tightened the laws against monopolies and dropped |
| the State. | | | | many defence projects. The British were satisfied with |
| Another area of public interest which occupied the | | | | the performance of the Wilson Government. In the |
| attention of the government was National Health | | | | new elections of 1966, Wilson was again voted to |
| Service. Every British citizen was made eligible without | | | | power with the majority of about hundred seats. In |
| charge for care in a hospital, medical service or special | | | | spring of 1966, Britain reduced its overseas forces by |
| care regardless of his income or occupational status. | | | | a third. It openly admitted that without the help of the |
| These social welfare schemes were a novelty in the | | | | United States, it could not manage any major military |
| history of Britain but none of these schemes could be | | | | operation. In 1967 and 1968, the pound was devalued |
| effected without the proper control of the British | | | | as a measure of austerity. However, trade continued |
| exchequer. In order to do something more for the | | | | to sag. The British Government got no economic help |
| British public, it became necessary for the Labour | | | | from the Commonwealth. The Britons found their |
| Government to adopt nationalization policy. In the | | | | economic celebration only in their membership of the |
| elections of 1945, the Labour Party had already | | | | Common Market. |
| pledged itself to the nationalization of commanding | | | | In 1970, Britain went to the polls in the eighth general |
| industries. Though the policy of nationalization adopted | | | | election since 1945. In this election, the issue of race |
| by the Labour Government was not a new thing as | | | | and the problems of British migrants and black |
| the telegraph and telephone system had already been | | | | immigrants were taken up by the Conservative |
| operated by the Post Office Department. The radio | | | | candidates. As a result of people’s aspirations’ |
| and the sale of power had been nationalized in | | | | struggles for independence were going on in many of |
| England as early as in 1926 and 1927. Hence the | | | | the British colonies. By 1970, many of the colonies |
| Post-War nationalization policy of the Labour | | | | were made free by the British people. The result was |
| Government was nothing but the extension of the | | | | that there was a great flux of both the whites and |
| scope of nationalization. | | | | blacks into Britain. Both the migrants and immigrants |
| The Labour Government nationalized the Bank of | | | | caused the problems of housing, unemployment, and |
| England, the overseas wireless services, the coal | | | | social security. The cause of these people was taken |
| mining industry, much of transport and electrical and | | | | up by the Conservatives in the elections of 1970 and |
| gas supply. After the nationalization of these | | | | the Labour Government was charged with cruelty |
| enterprises, the Labour Government passed an Act in | | | | against the white and black immigrants from Asia and |
| 1949 to nationalize the iron and steel industry. In 1951 | | | | the Caribbean. The Conservatives demanded |
| the government set up the Iron and Steel Corporation | | | | citizenship legislation to differentiate between those |
| of Great Britain and made it the owner of Britain’s | | | | who belonged to Britain and those who did not. It was |
| important iron and steel companies. | | | | at this juncture that the Britain was making attempts to |
| These measures adopted by the Labour Government | | | | enter the Common Market-the most important |
| were denounced by Winston Churchill, the leader of | | | | problem facing the British in 1970. In this election, the |
| the Conservative Party. He saw in the new | | | | Conservatives emerged victorious with a majority of |
| programmes of the Labour Party a danger to the | | | | thirty votes and Edward Heath was made a new |
| traditions and liberties of the British people. He | | | | Prime Minister. The Conservative Party was brought |
| expressed his concern saying that “the liberties and | | | | to power in this election with a hope that a Tory |
| free life of the Britain are in great danger.”6 | | | | Government would cut taxes. |
| Britain went to the polls in February 1951 once again. | | | | The social and political events which took place |
| The main issue in the elections was the policy of | | | | between 1945 and 1970 were very disturbing both in |
| nationalization. The Labour Party indicated in its election | | | | the domestic and foreign fronts. Britain suffered heavy |
| manifesto all the new area of nationalization. The | | | | losses in the Post-War period in trade, industry and |
| Conservative Party, on the other hand, promised to the | | | | foreign affairs. The only achievement of both the |
| electorates less national control. In the elections of | | | | Labour and Conservative Governments was that they |
| 1950, the majority of the Labour Party in the Parliament | | | | made Britain a nuclear power and developed a |
| dropped down from some 140 to about half a dozen | | | | successful and independent delivery system. |
| seats. These elections clearly reflected the mood of | | | | Britain, the sun of which had never set was now |
| the voters and the declining popularity of the Labour | | | | gradually sinking. Britain suffered more than most from |
| Party. The British population was in no mood to bear | | | | the loss of her colonies after the second Word War. |
| continuing pressures and crises developing from | | | | The immediate lost to Britain was the independence of |
| extensive social and economic experiments of the | | | | India. |
| Labour Government. The policies adopted by the | | | | Britain could not maintain her interests in Palestine after |
| Labour Government had resulted in the rise of taxes, | | | | the War. In 1947, Britain, therefore, announced her |
| which were resented by the British Populace. | | | | intention of surrendering the mandate of Palestine and |
| It was very difficult for the Labour Government to | | | | withdrawing completely from Palestine. The burden |
| continue in the office for another term of five years | | | | was left to the United Nations and the new state of |
| with a bare majority in the Parliament. The Labour | | | | Israel was born. |
| cabinet was immediately faced with many acute | | | | Some of the territories which broke free from the |
| problems. The entry of the British in to the Korean | | | | direct control of Britain did not seek complete |
| War was not popular in Great Britain. The adverse | | | | separatation. After 1945, India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Ghana, |
| trade balance of Britain created a severe financial | | | | Cyprus, Nigeria, Tanzania, Trinidad, Jamaica, Uganda, |
| situation. In addition to it, the defence needs made the | | | | Kenya, Zambia, Malta and Malaysia joined the |
| British budget higher than ever before. Hence the | | | | Commonwealth. Though the Post-War size of |
| social and economic programmes of the Labour | | | | Commonwealth was quite impressive but it was |
| Government were opposed and Prime Minister Attlee | | | | illusory because many of the new member states like |
| had no option but to declare another election in late | | | | India, Pakistan and Ghana became independent |
| 1951. Consequently, the Labour Party had to drop new | | | | republics. The only bond which existed between those |
| nationalization schemes in the election of 1951 whereas | | | | states and Britain was an economic one. The majority |
| the Conservative Party campaigned its election after | | | | of non-white people within the Commonwealth also |
| the slogan “Britain strong and free”. | | | | sought independence. Thus, Britain suffered many |
| Consequently, the Conservatives and their allies won | | | | hardships which she had never endured before. |
| 320 seats to 295 seats of the Labour Party. Winston | | | | After the war, the leaders of Britain believed that their |
| Churchill once again assumed the office as Prime | | | | country would be able to play the role of the keeper |
| Minister. | | | | of the European balance of power but due to the |
| The new government immediately set about | | | | adverse economic situation at home and overseas |
| dismantling the Welfare State. Under the Steel Act of | | | | troubles; Britain was forced to play a second fiddle in |
| 1953, the Iron and Steel Corporation of Great Britain | | | | the global affairs. Britain could not protect Turkey |
| was dissolved, and a private agency was established | | | | Greece against the Soviet expansion in 1947. Its |
| in its place. However, the government continued with | | | | responsibility was shifted to the United States. Britain |
| the house-building activities and social insurance plans | | | | admitted that she needed a collective defence |
| of the past government. The British youths had | | | | arrangement. The rapidly changing economic situation |
| already lost their faith in the Labour Party for making | | | | made Britain more and more dependent on the United |
| compromises during the last two elections. They were | | | | States to meet her defence obligations. As such the |
| disillusioned with the new government also as they | | | | standing of Britain in global affairs much diminished. |
| found it no better than the previous government. The | | | | In the domestic affairs, the eight general elections |
| war time controls particularly rationing of food and coal | | | | within a period of twenty five years since the end of |
| were removed neither by the Labour Government nor | | | | War brought nothing but high taxes to the public. The |
| by the Conservative Government until 1954. The tight | | | | British populace was badly dissatisfied with the |
| control over the economy was made necessary by | | | | performance of both the major political parties as they |
| an excess of imports over exports. | | | | expected nothing from them. Both the political parties |
| In May, 1955, elections to the Parliament were held | | | | had miserably failed to save the British empire and |
| again. The Conservatives again came to power with a | | | | invigorate the British economy. Thus, the dream of the |
| resounding majority under the leadership of Sir | | | | British people to restore the pre-war days of the |
| Anthony Eden. During 1956, the Conservative | | | | thirties and to revive the days of security, stability |
| Government was confronted by a series of problems. | | | | affluence and imperialism were belied in the Post-War |
| By 1956, the level of unemployment had risen and | | | | era causing violence, moral degradation, economic and |
| inflationary pressures had increased. In the Suez Canal | | | | social insecurity and sense of hopelessness among |
| issue, the Conservative Government had miserably | | | | the British youths. |